AI AS A COGNITIVE PROSTHESIS: DOES EDUCATIONAL AI REDUCE INTELLECTUAL AUTONOMY?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.36733/jsp.v16i1.13599Keywords:
Generative AI in learning, Cognitive prosthesis, Intellectual autonomy, Critical thinking skills, Metacognitive regulationAbstract
The rapid integration of generative artificial intelligence (AI) in education has positioned AI not merely as a technological tool, but increasingly as a cognitive prosthesis that extends learners’ cognitive capacities. While AI-driven systems offer substantial benefits—such as personalized learning, scaffolding, enhanced metacognitive regulation, and instructional efficiency—concerns persist regarding cognitive offloading, diminished critical thinking, reduced intellectual autonomy, and ethical risks. This study aims to critically examine the dual role of generative AI as a cognitive prosthesis in learning by synthesizing recent empirical and theoretical literature. Employing a systematic literature review methodology, this study analyzes peer-reviewed articles and proceedings indexed in Scopus and Copernicus published between 2015 and 2025. The reviewed studies are organized into two thematic domains: (1) the advantages and limitations of generative AI as a cognitive prosthesis in learning, and (2) the evolving roles of teachers and students in AI-mediated educational environments. The findings indicate that while generative AI can enhance metacognitive skills, creativity, learning efficiency, and personalized instruction, excessive dependence may lead to cognitive laziness, surface learning, weakened critical thinking, and ethical challenges related to data privacy and academic integrity. The study concludes that generative AI should be positioned as a supportive cognitive partner rather than a replacement for human cognition. Effective integration requires strong pedagogical design, ethical governance, and active mediation by educators to ensure that AI enhances learning without undermining intellectual autonomy.
Downloads
References
Adamu, S., & Awwalu, J. (2019). The Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Adaptive eLearning System (AES) Content Formation: Risks and Opportunities involved (No. arXiv:1903.00934). arXiv.https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1903.00934
Ahmed, Z., Shanto, S. S., Rime, Most. H. K., Morol, Md. K., Fahad, N., Hossen, Md. J., & Abdullah-Al-Jubair, Md. (2024). The Generative AI Landscape in Education: Mapping the Terrain of Opportunities, Challenges, and Student Perception. IEEE Access, 12, 147023–147050. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3461874
Al-Mughairi, H., & Bhaskar, P. (2025). Exploring the factors affecting the adoption of AI techniques in higher education: Insights from teachers’ perspectives on ChatGPT. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning, 18(2), 232–247. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIT-09-2023-0129
Atchley, P., Pannell, H., Wofford, K., Hopkins, M., & Atchley, R. A. (2024). Human and AI collaboration in the higher education environment: Opportunities and concerns. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 9(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-024-00547-9
Bearman, M., Tai, J., Dawson, P., Boud, D., & Ajjawi, R. (2024). Developing evaluative judgement for a time of generative artificial intelligence. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 49(6), 893–905. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2024.2335321
Borjigin, A., & Shen, Z. (2025). AI-Powered Meta-Reflection for Self-Learning in STEM: A Middle School Case Study on Smart Home Energy Management. 2017 IEEE Region 10 Symposium (TENSYMP), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/tensymp63728.2025.11144984
Calzada, K. P. D. (2024). Anti-dependency teaching strategy for innovation in the age of AI among technology-based students. Environment and Social Psychology, 9(8). https://doi.org/10.59429/esp.v9i8.3026
Carbonell-Alcocer, A., Sanchez-Acedo, A., Benitez-Aranda, N., & Gertrudix, M. (2024). Impact of Generative Artificial Intelligence on efficiency, quality and innovation in the production of Open Educational Resources for MOOCs.Communication and Society, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.32870/cys.v2025.8784
Chakkaravarthy, A. P., Dhanalakshmi, J., Anjelin, D. P., Shieh, C., & Horng, M.-F. (2025). Personalized Learning Through AI on the Power of Tailored Education. Advances in Computational Intelligence and Robotics Book Series, 455–480. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-5092-9.ch016
Chavez, Jason V., Cuilan, Jhordan T., Mannan, Sali S., Ibrahim, Narrin U., Carolino, Aisha A., Abubakar Radjuni, Salman E. Albani, & Benigno A. Garil. (2024). Discourse Analysis on the Ethical Dilemmas on the Use of AI in Academic Settings from ICT, Science, and Language Instructors. Forum for Linguistic Studies, 6(5), 349–363. https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v6i5.6765
Cole, E., & Dehdashti, P. (1998). Computer-based cognitive prosthetics: Assistive technology for the treatment of cognitive disabilities. Proceedings of the Third International ACM Conference on Assistive Technologies, 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1145/274497.274502
Estaphan, S., Kramer, D., & Witchel, H. J. (2025). Navigating the frontier of AI-assisted student assignments: Challenges, skills, and solutions. Advances in Physiology Education, 49(3), 633–639. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00253.2024
Feng, Z., & Xiao, H. (2024). The impact of students’ lack of learning motivation and teachers’ teaching methods on innovation resistance in the context of big data. Learning and Motivation, 87, 102020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.102020
Fidalgo, P., & Thormann, J. (2024). The Future of Lifelong Learning: The Role of Artificial Intelligence and Distance Education. In F. Gomez Paloma (Ed.), Education and Human Development (Vol. 19). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114120
Gerlich, M. (2025). AI Tools in Society: Impacts on Cognitive Offloading and the Future of Critical Thinking. Societies, 15(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15010006
Gkintoni, E., Antonopoulou, H., Sortwell, A., & Halkiopoulos, C. (2025). Challenging Cognitive Load Theory: The Role of Educational Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence in Redefining Learning Efficacy. Brain Sciences, 15(2), 203. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15020203
Gonsalves, C. (2024). Generative AI’s Impact on Critical Thinking: Revisiting Bloom’s Taxonomy. Journal of Marketing Education, 02734753241305980. https://doi.org/10.1177/02734753241305980
Gustafi, M. F. (2025). Optimization of AI Usage in Learning Materials Application of Prompt Engineering Techniques for Learning Management Systems (LMS). JRST (Journal of Science and Technology Research), 121–133. https://doi.org/10.30595/jrst.v9i2.23393
Habib, S., Vogel, T., Anli, X., & Thorne, E. (2024). How does generative artificial intelligence impact student creativity? Journal of Creativity, 34(1), 100072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yjoc.2023.100072
Hacker, K. L., & Mason, S. M. (2003). Ethical gaps in studies of the digital divide. Ethics and Information Technology, 5(2), 99–115. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024968602974
Hajiyev, Y. , Masimov , O. , & Masimov , O. (2024). Integration of artificial intelligence (ai) into task management systems. Proceedings of Azerbaijan High Technical Educational Institution, 41(06), 501–509. https://doi.org/10.36962/pahtei41062024-55
Hasibuan, R. & Andina Azizah. (2023). Analyzing the Potential of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Personalizing Learning to Foster Creativity in Students. Enigma in Education, 1(1), 6–10. https://doi.org/10.61996/edu.v1i1.2
Holman, Kenneth, Marino, M., Vasquez, E., Taub, M., Hunt, J., & Tazi, Y. (2024). Navigating AI-Powered Personalized Learning in Special Education: A Guide for Preservice Teacher Faculty. Journal of Special Education Preparation, 4(2), 90–95. https://doi.org/10.33043/5b2xqcb3
Hong, H., Vate-U-Lan, P., & Viriyavejakul, C. (2025). Cognitive Offload Instruction with Generative AI: A Quasi‑Experimental Study on Critical Thinking Gains in English Writing. Forum for Linguistic Studies, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v7i7.10072
Huang, L. (2023). Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Student Privacy and Data Protection. Science Insights Education Frontiers, 16(2), 2577–2587. https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.23.re202
Hutson, J., & Ceballos, J. (2023). Rethinking Education in the Age of AI: The Importance of Developing Durable Skills in the Industry 4.0. Journal of Information Economics, 1(2), 26–35. https://doi.org/10.58567/jie01020002
Iman, M. Z., Airlangga Asis, A., & Uzma Zein Rahma, A. (2024). Enhancing Personalized Learning: The Impact of Artificial Intelligence in Education. Edu Spectrum: Journal of Multidimensional Education, 1(2), 101–112. https://doi.org/10.70063/eduspectrum.v1i2.55
Izak, M., Barros, A., Prasad, A., & Śliwa, M. (2025). Generative artificial intelligence and learning: At the dawn of Idiocracy? Management Learning, 56(3), 407–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505076251348575
Jiao. (2024). AI-Driven Personalization in Higher Education: Enhancing Learning Outcomes through Adaptive Technologies. Adult and Higher Education, 6(6). https://doi.org/10.23977/aduhe.2024.060607
Kamruzzaman, M. M. , Alanazi , S. , Alruwaili , M. , Alshammari , N. , Elaiwat , S. , Abu-Zanona , M. , Innab , N. , Mohammad Elzaghmouri , B. , & Ahmed Alanazi , B. (2023). AI- and IoT-Assisted Sustainable Education Systems during Pandemics, such as COVID-19, for Smart Cities. Sustainability, 15(10), 8354. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15108354
Kassaye, S. N. (2024). Application of Artificial Intelligence in Higher Education: A Systematic Review. Kotebe Journal of Education, 2(1), 72–86. https://doi.org/10.61489/30053447.2(1).72
Kaswan, K. S., Dhatterwal, J. S., & Ojha, R. P. (2024).AI in personalized learning(pp. 103–117). Inform.https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003376699-s9
Khotimah, K., Rusijono, & Mariono, A. (2024). Enhancing Metacognitive and Creativity Skills through AI-Driven Meta-Learning Strategies. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v18i05.47705
Kim, J., Detrick, R., Yu, S., Song, Y., Bol, L., & Li, N. (2025). Socially shared regulation of learning and artificial intelligence: Opportunities to support socially shared regulation. Education and Information Technologies, 30(9), 11483–11521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13187-9
Kim, Y. S. G. (2026). What Explains the Relations Between Reading Comprehension and Written Composition? Findings from a Longitudinal Study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 30(2), 105–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2025.2582620
Kinshuk, Chen, N.-S., Cheng, I.-L., & Chew, S. W. (2016). Evolution Is not enough: Revolutionizing Current Learning Environments to Smart Learning Environments. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 26(2), 561–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-016-0108-x
Kosaraju, D. (2024). Hierarchical Reinforcement Learning: Structuring Decision-Making for Complex AI Tasks. International Journal of Science and Healthcare Research, 7(2), 485–491. https://doi.org/10.52403/ijshr.20220468
Lee, C.-W. (2025). Application of Generative Artificial Intelligence in Design Education: An Exploration and Analysis to Enhance Student Creativity. Engineering Proceedings, 98(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025098029
Malik, A., Khan, M. L., Hussain, K., Qadir, J., & Tarhini, A. (2025). AI in higher education: Unveiling academicians’ perspectives on teaching, research, and ethics in the age of ChatGPT. Interactive Learning Environments, 33(3), 2390–2406. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2024.2409407
Maphosa, V. (2024). The Rise of Artificial Intelligence and Emerging Ethical and Social Concerns. AI, Computer Science and Robotics Technology, 3. https://doi.org/10.5772/acrt.20240020
Mehmood, W., Gondal, S., Faiz, M., & Khurshid, A. (2025). AI-Assisted Metacognitive Strategies for Improving Self-Regulated Learning among High School Students. The Critical Review of Social Sciences Studies, 3(2), 2333–2349. https://doi.org/10.59075/vk7et188
Mhlanga, D. (2021). Artificial Intelligence in the Industry 4.0, and Its Impact on Poverty, Innovation, Infrastructure Development, and the Sustainable Development Goals: Lessons from Emerging Economies? Sustainability, 13(11), 5788. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13115788
Mindigulova, A. A., Vikhman, V. V., & Romm, M. V. (2024). Artificial intelligence and personalized learning: Scaffolding technology. Professional Education in the Modern World, 13(4), 613–622. https://doi.org/10.20913/2618-7515-2023-4-3
Olanrewaju, G. S., Adebayo, S. B., Omotosho, A. Y., & Olajide, C. F. (2021). Left behind? The effects of digital gaps on e-learning in rural secondary schools and remote communities across Nigeria during the COVID19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2, 100092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100092
Parekh, V., Shah, D., & Shah, M. (2020). Fatigue Detection Using Artificial Intelligence Framework. Augmented Human Research, 5(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41133-019-0023-4
Pratama, Muh. P., Sampelolo, R., & Lura, H. (2023). Revolutionizing Education: Harnessing The Power Of Artificial Intelligence For Personalized Learning. Klasikal : Journal Of Education, Language Teaching And Science, 5(2), 350–357. https://doi.org/10.52208/klasikal.v5i2.877
rabadanova, R., Seminskaya, E., & Filatov, A. (2024). The Negative Aspects Of Using Artificial Intelligence For Students In Solving Individual Educational Tasks. Applied Psychology and Pedagogy, 9(3), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.12737/2500-0543-2024-9-3-115-124
Rane, N., Shirke, S., Choudhary, S. P., & Rane, J. (2024). Education Strategies for Promoting Academic Integrity in the Era of Artificial Intelligence and ChatGPT: Ethical Considerations, Challenges, Policies, and Future Directions. Journal of ELT Studies, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.48185/jes.v1i1.1314
Rodríguez-Ruiz, J., Marín-López, I., & Espejo-Siles, R. (2025). Is artificial intelligence use related to self-control, self-esteem and self-efficacy among university students? Education and Information Technologies, 30(2), 2507–2524. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12906-6
Sandholm, T., Dong, S., Mukherjee, S., Feland, J., & Huberman, B. A. (2024).Semantic Navigation for AI-assisted Ideation (Version 1). arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/ARXIV.2411.03575
Song, N. (2024). Higher education crisis: Academic misconduct with generative AI. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 32(1), e12532. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5973.12532
Wan, Y., Li, R., Li, W., & Du, H. (2025). Impact Pathways of AI-Supported Instruction on Learning Behaviors, Competence Development, and Academic Achievement in Engineering Education. Sustainability, 17(17), 8059. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17178059
Wang, C. (2025). Exploring Students’ Generative AI-Assisted Writing Processes: Perceptions and Experiences from Native and Nonnative English Speakers. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 30(3), 1825–1846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-024-09744-3
Yang, Y., & Xia, N. (2023). Enhancing Students’ Metacognition via AI-Driven Educational Support Systems. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning. https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v18i24.45647
Yao, X., Zhong, Y., & Cao, W. (2025). The analysis of generative artificial intelligence technology for innovative thinking and strategies in animation teaching. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 18618. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-03805-y
Zhan, Z., He, G., Li, T., He, L., & Xiang, S. (2022). Effect of groups size on students’ learning achievement, motivation, cognitive load, collaborative problem‐solving quality, and in‐class interaction in an introductory AI course. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(6), 1807–1818. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12722
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Komang Ayu Shri Candrika, Ida Bagus Ari Arjaya, Desak Nyoman Budiningsih, Viony Aprilia Agustina
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
